Oreb - raven, a
prince of Midian, who, being defeated by Gideon and put to straits, was slain
along with Zeeb (Judg. 7:20-25). Many of the Midianites perished along with him
(Ps. 83:9; Isa. 10:26). Oreb, The rock of - the
place where Gideon slew Oreb after the defeat of the Midianites (Judg. 7:25; Isa.
10:26). It was probably the place now called Orbo, on the east of Jordan, near
Bethshean.
Oren - ash or pine, the son of Jerahmeel
(1 Chr. 2:25).
Organ - some kind of wind instrument,
probably a kind of Pan's pipes (Gen. 4:21; Job 21:12; Ps. 150:4), which consisted
of seven or eight reeds of unequal length.
Orion -
Heb. Kesil; i.e., "the fool", the name of a constellation (Job 9:9; 38:31;
Amos 5:8) consisting of about eighty stars. The Vulgate renders thus, but the
LXX. renders by Hesperus, i.e., "the evening-star," Venus. The Orientals "appear
to have conceived of this constellation under the figure of an impious giant bound
upon the sky." This giant was, according to tradition, Nimrod, the type of the
folly that contends against God. In Isa. 13:10 the plural form of the Hebrew word
is rendered "constellations."
Ornan - 1 Chr. 21:15.
(See ARAUNAH.)
Orpah
- forelock or fawn, a Moabitess, the wife of Chilion (Ruth 1:4; 4:10). On
the death of her husband she accompanied Naomi, her mother-in-law, part of the
way to Bethlehem, and then returned to Moab.
Orphans
- (Lam. 5:3), i.e., desolate and without protectors. The word occurs only
here. In John 14:18 the word there rendered "comfortless" (R.V., "desolate;" marg.,
"orphans") properly means "orphans." The same Greek word is rendered "fatherless"
in James 1:27.
Osprey - Heb. 'ozniyyah, an unclean
bird according to the Mosaic law (Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12); the fish-eating eagle
(Pandion haliaetus); one of the lesser eagles. But the Hebrew word may be taken
to denote the short-toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus of Southern Europe), one of
the most abundant of the eagle tribe found in Palestine.
Ossifrage
- Heb. peres = to "break" or "crush", the lammer-geier, or bearded vulture,
the largest of the whole vulture tribe. It was an unclean bird (Lev. 11:13; Deut.
14:12). It is not a gregarious bird, and is found but rarely in Palestine. "When
the other vultures have picked the flesh off any animal, he comes in at the end
of the feast, and swallows the bones, or breaks them, and swallows the pieces
if he cannot otherwise extract the marrow. The bones he cracks [hence the appropriateness
of the name ossifrage, i.e., "bone-breaker"] by letting them fall on a rock from
a great height. He does not, however, confine himself to these delicacies, but
whenever he has an opportunity will devour lambs, kids, or hares. These he generally
obtains by pushing them over cliffs, when he has watched his opportunity; and
he has been known to attack men while climbing rocks, and dash them against the
bottom. But tortoises and serpents are his ordinary food...No doubt it was a lammer-geier
that mistook the bald head of the poet AEschylus for a stone, and dropped on it
the tortoise which killed him" (Tristram's Nat. Hist.).
Ostrich
- (Lam. 4:3), the rendering of Hebrew pl. enim; so called from its greediness
and gluttony. The allusion here is to the habit of the ostrich with reference
to its eggs, which is thus described: "The outer layer of eggs is generally so
ill covered that they are destroyed in quantities by jackals, wild-cats, etc.,
and that the natives carry them away, only taking care not to leave the marks
of their footsteps, since, when the ostrich comes and finds that her nest is discovered,
she crushes the whole brood, and builds a nest elsewhere." In Job 39:13 this word
in the Authorized Version is the rendering of a Hebrew word (notsah) which means
"feathers," as in the Revised Version. In the same verse the word "peacocks" of
the Authorized Version is the rendering of the Hebrew pl. renanim, properly meaning
"ostriches," as in the Revised Version. (See OWL ¯T0002815 [1].)
Othni
- a lion of Jehovah, a son of Shemaiah, and one of the temple porters in the
time of David (1 Chr. 26:7). He was a "mighty man of valour."
Othniel
- lion of God, the first of the judges. His wife Achsah was the daughter of
Caleb (Josh. 15:16, 17; Judg. 1:13). He gained her hand as a reward for his bravery
in leading a successful expedition against Debir (q.v.). Some thirty years after
the death of Joshua, the Israelites fell under the subjection of Chushan-rishathaim
(q.v.), the king of Mesopotamia. He oppressed them for full eight years, when
they "cried" unto Jehovah, and Othniel was raised up to be their deliverer. He
was the younger brother of Caleb (Judg. 3:8, 9-11). He is the only judge mentioned
connected with the tribe of Judah. Under him the land had rest forty years.
Ouches
- an Old English word denoting cavities or sockets in which gems were set
(Ex. 28:11).
Oven - Heb. tannur, (Hos. 7:4). In
towns there appear to have been public ovens. There was a street in Jerusalem
(Jer. 37:21) called "bakers' street" (the only case in which the name of a street
in Jerusalem is preserved). The words "tower of the furnaces" (Neh. 3:11; 12:38)
is more properly "tower of the ovens" (Heb. tannurim). These resemble the ovens
in use among ourselves.
There were other private ovens of different kinds.
Some were like large jars made of earthenware or copper, which were heated inside
with wood (1 Kings 17:12; Isa. 44:15; Jer. 7:18) or grass (Matt. 6:30), and when
the fire had burned out, small pieces of dough were placed inside or spread in
thin layers on the outside, and were thus baked. (See FURNACE.)
Pits
were also formed for the same purposes, and lined with cement. These were used
after the same manner.
Heated stones, or sand heated by a fire heaped over
it, and also flat irons pans, all served as ovens for the preparation of bread.
(See Gen. 18:6; 1 Kings 19:6.)
Owl - (1.) Heb.
bath-haya'anah, "daughter of greediness" or of "shouting." In the list of unclean
birds (Lev. 11:16; Deut. 14:15); also mentioned in Job 30:29; Isa. 13:21; 34:13;
43:20; Jer. 50:39; Micah 1:8. In all these passages the Revised Version translates
"ostrich" (q.v.), which is the correct rendering.
(2.) Heb. yanshuph, rendered
"great owl" in Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16, and "owl" in Isa. 34:11. This is supposed
to be the Egyptian eagle-owl (Bubo ascalaphus), which takes the place of the eagle-owl
(Bubo maximus) found in Southern Europe. It is found frequenting the ruins of
Egypt and also of the Holy Land. "Its cry is a loud, prolonged, and very powerful
hoot. I know nothing which more vividly brought to my mind the sense of desolation
and loneliness than the re-echoing hoot of two or three of these great owls as
I stood at midnight among the ruined temples of Baalbek" (Tristram).
The LXX.
and Vulgate render this word by "ibis", i.e., the Egyptian heron.
(3.) Heb.
kos, rendered "little owl" in Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16, and "owl" in Ps. 102:6.
The Arabs call this bird "the mother of ruins." It is by far the most common of
all the owls of Palestine. It is the Athene persica, the bird of Minerva, the
symbol of ancient Athens.
(4.) Heb. kippoz, the "great owl" (Isa. 34:15); Revised
Version, "arrow-snake;" LXX. and Vulgate, "hedgehog," reading in the text, kippod,
instead of kippoz. There is no reason to doubt the correctness of the rendering
of the Authorized Version. Tristram says: "The word [i.e., kippoz] is very possibly
an imitation of the cry of the scops owl (Scops giu), which is very common among
ruins, caves, and old walls of towns...It is a migrant, returning to Palestine
in spring."
(5.) Heb. lilith, "screech owl" (Isa. 34:14, marg. and R.V., "night
monster"). The Hebrew word is from a root signifying "night." Some species of
the owl is obviously intended by this word. It may be the hooting or tawny owl
(Syrnium aluco), which is common in Egypt and in many parts of Palestine. This
verse in Isaiah is "descriptive of utter and perpetual desolation, of a land that
should be full of ruins, and inhabited by the animals that usually make such ruins
their abode."
Ox - Heb. bakar, "cattle;" "neat
cattle", (Gen. 12:16; 34:28; Job 1:3, 14; 42:12, etc.); not to be muzzled when
treading the corn (Deut. 25:4). Referred to by our Lord in his reproof to the
Pharisees (Luke 13:15; 14:5).
Ox goad - mentioned
only in Judg. 3:31, the weapon with which Shamgar (q.v.) slew six hundred Philistines.
"The ploughman still carries his goad, a weapon apparently more fitted for the
hand of the soldier than the peaceful husbandman. The one I saw was of the 'oak
of Bashan,' and measured upwards of ten feet in length. At one end was an iron
spear, and at the other a piece of the same metal flattened. One can well understand
how a warrior might use such a weapon with effect in the battle-field" (Porter's
Syria, etc.). (See GOAD.)
Ozem
- strong. (1.) One of David's brothers; the sixth son of Jesse (1 Chr. 2:15).
(2.) A son of Jerahmeel (1 Chr. 2:25).
Ozias - son
of Joram (Matt. 1:8); called also Uzziah (2 Kings 15:32, 34).
Ozni
- hearing, one of the sons of Gad; also called Ezbon (Gen. 46:16; Num. 26:16).
Paarai - opening of the Lord, "the Arbite," one
of David's heroes (2 Sam. 23:35); called also Naarai, 1 Chr. 11:37.
Padan
- a plain, occurring only in Gen. 48:7, where it designates Padan-aram.
Padan-aram
- the plain of Aram, or the plain of the highlands, (Gen. 25:20; 28:2, 5-7;
31:18, etc.), commonly regarded as the district of Mesopotamia (q.v.) lying around
Haran.
Pagiel - God allots, a prince of the tribe
of Asher (Num. 1:13), in the wilderness.
Pahath-moab
- governor of Moab, a person whose descendants returned from the Captivity
and assisted in rebuilding Jerusalem (Ezra 2:6; 8:4; 10:30).
Paint
- Jezebel "painted her face" (2 Kings 9:30); and the practice of painting
the face and the eyes seems to have been common (Jer. 4:30; Ezek. 23:40). An allusion
to this practice is found in the name of Job's daughter (42:14) Kerenhappuch (q.v.).
Paintings in the modern sense of the word were unknown to the ancient Jews.
Palace
- Used now only of royal dwellings, although originally meaning simply (as
the Latin word palatium, from which it is derived, shows) a building surrounded
by a fence or a paling. In the Authorized Version there are many different words
so rendered, presenting different ideas, such as that of citadel or lofty fortress
or royal residence (Neh. 1:1; Dan. 8:2). It is the name given to the temple fortress
(Neh. 2:8) and to the temple itself (1 Chr. 29:1). It denotes also a spacious
building or a great house (Dan. 1:4; 4:4, 29: Esther 1:5; 7:7), and a fortified
place or an enclosure (Ezek. 25:4). Solomon's palace is described in 1 Kings 7:1-12
as a series of buildings rather than a single great structure. Thirteen years
were spent in their erection. This palace stood on the eastern hill, adjoining
the temple on the south.
In the New Testament it designates the official residence
of Pilate or that of the high priest (Matt. 26:3, 58, 69; Mark 14:54, 66; John
18:15). In Phil. 1:13 this word is the rendering of the Greek praitorion, meaning
the praetorian cohorts at Rome (the life-guard of the Caesars). Paul was continually
chained to a soldier of that corps (Acts 28:16), and hence his name and sufferings
became known in all the praetorium. The "soldiers that kept" him would, on relieving
one another on guard, naturally spread the tidings regarding him among their comrades.
Some, however, regard the praetroium (q.v.) as the barrack within the palace (the
palatium) of the Caesars in Rome where a detachment of these praetorian guards
was stationed, or as the camp of the guards placed outside the eastern walls of
Rome.
"In the chambers which were occupied as guard-rooms," says Dr. Manning,
"by the praetorian troops on duty in the palace, a number of rude caricatures
are found roughly scratched upon the walls, just such as may be seen upon barrack
walls in every part of the world. Amongst these is one of a human figure nailed
upon a cross. To add to the 'offence of the cross,' the crucified one is represented
with the head of an animal, probably that of an ass. Before it stands the figure
of a Roman legionary with one hand upraised in the attitude of worship. Underneath
is the rude, misspelt, ungrammatical inscription, Alexamenos worships his god.
It can scarcely be doubted that we have here a contemporary caricature, executed
by one of the praetorian guard, ridiculing the faith of a Christian comrade."
Palestine - originally denoted only the sea-coast
of the land of Canaan inhabited by the Philistines (Ex. 15:14; Isa. 14:29, 31;
Joel 3:4), and in this sense exclusively the Hebrew name Pelesheth (rendered "Philistia"
in Ps. 60:8; 83:7; 87:4; 108:9) occurs in the Old Testament.
Not till a late
period in Jewish history was this name used to denote "the land of the Hebrews"
in general (Gen. 40:15). It is also called "the holy land" (Zech. 2:12), the "land
of Jehovah" (Hos. 9:3; Ps. 85:1), the "land of promise" (Heb. 11:9), because promised
to Abraham (Gen. 12:7; 24:7), the "land of Canaan" (Gen. 12:5), the "land of Israel"
(1 Sam. 13:19), and the "land of Judah" (Isa. 19:17).
The territory promised
as an inheritance to the seed of Abraham (Gen. 15:18-21; Num. 34:1-12) was bounded
on the east by the river Euphrates, on the west by the Mediterranean, on the north
by the "entrance of Hamath," and on the south by the "river of Egypt." This extent
of territory, about 60,000 square miles, was at length conquered by David, and
was ruled over also by his son Solomon (2 Sam. 8; 1 Chr. 18; 1 Kings 4:1, 21).
This vast empire was the Promised Land; but Palestine was only a part of it, terminating
in the north at the southern extremity of the Lebanon range, and in the south
in the wilderness of Paran, thus extending in all to about 144 miles in length.
Its average breadth was about 60 miles from the Mediterranean on the west to beyond
the Jordan. It has fittingly been designated "the least of all lands." Western
Palestine, on the south of Gaza, is only about 40 miles in breadth from the Mediterranean
to the Dead Sea, narrowing gradually toward the north, where it is only 20 miles
from the sea-coast to the Jordan.
Palestine, "set in the midst" (Ezek. 5:5)
of all other lands, is the most remarkable country on the face of the earth. No
single country of such an extent has so great a variety of climate, and hence
also of plant and animal life. Moses describes it as "a good land, a land of brooks
of water, of fountains and depths that spring out of valleys and hills; a land
of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates; a land of oil
olive, and honey; a land wherein thou shalt not eat bread without scarceness,
thou shalt not lack any thing in it; a land whose stones are iron, and out of
whose hills thou mayest dig brass" (Deut. 8:7-9).
"In the time of Christ the
country looked, in all probability, much as now. The whole land consists of rounded
limestone hills, fretted into countless stony valleys, offering but rarely level
tracts, of which Esdraelon alone, below Nazareth, is large enough to be seen on
the map. The original woods had for ages disappeared, though the slopes were dotted,
as now, with figs, olives, and other fruit-trees where there was any soil. Permanent
streams were even then unknown, the passing rush of winter torrents being all
that was seen among the hills. The autumn and spring rains, caught in deep cisterns
hewn out like huge underground jars in the soft limestone, with artificial mud-banked
ponds still found near all villages, furnished water. Hills now bare, or at best
rough with stunted growth, were then terraced, so as to grow vines, olives, and
grain. To-day almost desolate, the country then teemed with population. Wine-presses
cut in the rocks, endless terraces, and the ruins of old vineyard towers are now
found amidst solitudes overgrown for ages with thorns and thistles, or with wild
shrubs and poor gnarled scrub" (Geikie's Life of Christ).
From an early period
the land was inhabited by the descendants of Canaan, who retained possession of
the whole land "from Sidon to Gaza" till the time of the conquest by Joshua, when
it was occupied by the twelve tribes. Two tribes and a half had their allotments
given them by Moses on the east of the Jordan (Deut. 3:12-20; comp. Num. 1:17-46;
Josh. 4:12-13). The remaining tribes had their portion on the west of Jordan.
From the conquest till the time of Saul, about four hundred years, the people
were governed by judges. For a period of one hundred and twenty years the kingdom
retained its unity while it was ruled by Saul and David and Solomon. On the death
of Solomon, his son Rehoboam ascended the throne; but his conduct was such that
ten of the tribes revolted, and formed an independent monarchy, called the kingdom
of Israel, or the northern kingdom, the capital of which was first Shechem and
afterwards Samaria. This kingdom was destroyed. The Israelites were carried captive
by Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, B.C. 722, after an independent existence of two
hundred and fifty-three years. The place of the captives carried away was supplied
by tribes brought from the east, and thus was formed the Samaritan nation (2 Kings
17:24-29).
Nebuchadnezzar came up against the kingdom of the two tribes, the
kingdom of Judah, the capital of which was Jerusalem, one hundred and thirty-four
years after the overthrow of the kingdom of Israel. He overthrew the city, plundered
the temple, and carried the people into captivity to Babylon (B.C. 587), where
they remained seventy years. At the close of the period of the Captivity, they
returned to their own land, under the edict of Cyrus (Ezra 1:1-4). They rebuilt
the city and temple, and restored the old Jewish commonwealth.
For a while
after the Restoration the Jews were ruled by Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah, and
afterwards by the high priests, assisted by the Sanhedrin. After the death of
Alexander the Great at Babylon (B.C. 323), his vast empire was divided between
his four generals. Egypt, Arabia, Palestine, and Coele-Syria fell to the lot of
Ptolemy Lagus. Ptolemy took possession of Palestine in B.C. 320, and carried nearly
one hundred thousand of the inhabitants of Jerusalem into Egypt. He made Alexandria
the capital of his kingdom, and treated the Jews with consideration, confirming
them in the enjoyment of many privileges.
After suffering persecution at the
hands of Ptolemy's successors, the Jews threw off the Egyptian yoke, and became
subject to Antiochus the Great, the king of Syria. The cruelty and opression of
the successors of Antiochus at length led to the revolt under the Maccabees (B.C.
163), when they threw off the Syrian yoke.
In the year B.C. 68, Palestine was
reduced by Pompey the Great to a Roman province. He laid the walls of the city
in ruins, and massacred some twelve thousand of the inhabitants. He left the temple,
however, unijured. About twenty-five years after this the Jews revolted and cast
off the Roman yoke. They were however, subdued by Herod the Great (q.v.). The
city and the temple were destroyed, and many of the inhabitants were put to death.
About B.C. 20, Herod proceeded to rebuild the city and restore the ruined temple,
which in about nine years and a half was so far completed that the sacred services
could be resumed in it (comp. John 2:20). He was succeeded by his son Archelaus,
who was deprived of his power, however, by Augustus, A.D. 6, when Palestine became
a Roman province, ruled by Roman governors or procurators. Pontius Pilate was
the fifth of these procurators. He was appointed to his office A.D. 25.
Exclusive
of Idumea, the kingdom of Herod the Great comprehended the whole of the country
originally divided among the twelve tribes, which he divided into four provinces
or districts. This division was recognized so long as Palestine was under the
Roman dominion. These four provinces were, (1) Judea, the southern portion of
the country; (2) Samaria, the middle province, the northern boundary of which
ran along the hills to the south of the plain of Esdraelon; (3) Galilee, the northern
province; and (4) Peraea (a Greek name meaning the "opposite country"), the country
lying east of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. This province was subdivided into these
districts, (1) Peraea proper, lying between the rivers Arnon and Jabbok; (2) Galaaditis
(Gilead); (3) Batanaea; (4) Gaulonitis (Jaulan); (5) Ituraea or Auranitis, the
ancient Bashan; (6) Trachonitis; (7) Abilene; (8) Decapolis, i.e., the region
of the ten cities. The whole territory of Palestine, including the portions alloted
to the trans-Jordan tribes, extended to about eleven thousand square miles. Recent
exploration has shown the territory on the west of Jordan alone to be six thousand
square miles in extent, the size of the principality of Wales.
Pallu
- separated, the second son of Reuben (1 Chr. 5:3); called Phallu, Gen. 46:9.
He was the father of the Phalluites (Ex. 6:14; Num. 26:5, 8).
Palmer-worm
- (Heb. gazam). The English word may denote either a caterpillar (as rendered
by the LXX.), which wanders like a palmer or pilgrim, or which travels like pilgrims
in bands (Joel 1:4; 2:25), the wingless locusts, or the migratory locust in its
larva state.
Palm tree - (Heb. tamar), the date-palm
characteristic of Palestine. It is described as "flourishing" (Ps. 92:12), tall
(Cant. 7:7), "upright" (Jer. 10:5). Its branches are a symbol of victory (Rev.
7:9). "Rising with slender stem 40 or 50, at times even 80, feet aloft, its only
branches, the feathery, snow-like, pale-green fronds from 6 to 12 feet long, bending
from its top, the palm attracts the eye wherever it is seen." The whole land of
Palestine was called by the Greeks and Romans Phoenicia, i.e., "the land of palms."
Tadmor in the desert was called by the Greeks and Romans Palmyra, i.e., "the city
of palms." The finest specimens of this tree grew at Jericho (Deut. 34:3) and
Engedi and along the banks of the Jordan. Branches of the palm tree were carried
at the feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:40). At our Lord's triumphal entrance into
Jerusalem the crowds took palm branches, and went forth to meet him, crying, "Hosanna:
Blessed is the King of Israel that cometh in the name of the Lord" (Matt. 21:8;
John 12:13). (See DATE.)
Palm
trees, The city of - the name given to Jericho (q.v.), Deut. 34:3; Judg. 1:16;
3:13.
Palsy - a shorter form of "paralysis." Many
persons thus afflicted were cured by our Lord (Matt. 4:24; 8:5-13; 9:2-7; Mark
2:3-11; Luke 7:2-10; John 5:5-7) and the apostles (Acts 8:7; 9:33, 34).
Palti
- deliverance from the Lord, one of the spies representing the tribe of Benjamin
(Num. 13:9).
Paltiel - deliverance of God, the
prince of Issachar who assisted "to divide the land by inheritance" (Num. 34:26).
Paltite - the designation of one of David's heroes
(2 Sam. 23:26); called also the Pelonite (1 Chr. 11:27).
Pamphylia
- Paul and his company, loosing from Paphos, sailed north-west and came to
Perga, the capital of Pamphylia (Acts 13:13, 14), a province about the middle
of the southern sea-board of Asia Minor. It lay between Lycia on the west and
Cilicia on the east. There were strangers from Pamphylia at Jerusalem on the day
of Pentecost (2:10).
Pan - a vessel of metal or
earthenware used in culinary operations; a cooking-pan or frying-pan frequently
referred to in the Old Testament (Lev. 2:5; 6:21; Num. 11:8; 1 Sam. 2:14, etc.).
The "ash-pans" mentioned in Ex. 27:3 were made of copper, and were used in
connection with the altar of burnt-offering. The "iron pan" mentioned in Ezek.
4:3 (marg., "flat plate " or "slice") was probably a mere plate of iron used for
baking. The "fire-pans" of Ex. 27:3 were fire-shovels used for taking up coals.
The same Hebrew word is rendered "snuff-dishes" (25:38; 37:23) and "censers" (Lev.
10:1; 16:12; Num. 4:14, etc.). These were probably simply metal vessels employed
for carrying burning embers from the brazen altar to the altar of incense.
The
"frying-pan" mentioned in Lev. 2:7; 7:9 was a pot for boiling.
Pannag
- (Ezek. 27:17; marg. R.V., "perhaps a kind of confection") the Jews explain
as the name of a kind of sweet pastry. Others take it as the name of some place,
identifying it with Pingi, on the road between Damascus and Baalbec. "Pannaga"
is the Sanscrit name of an aromatic plant (comp. Gen. 43:11).
Paper
- The expression in the Authorized Version (Isa. 19:7), "the paper reeds by
the brooks," is in the Revised Version more correctly "the meadows by the Nile."
The words undoubtedly refer to a grassy place on the banks of the Nile fit for
pasturage.
In 2 John 1:12 the word is used in its proper sense. The material
so referred to was manufactured from the papyrus, and hence its name. The papyrus
(Heb. gome) was a kind of bulrush (q.v.). It is mentioned by Job (8:11) and Isaiah
(35:7). It was used for many purposes. This plant (Papyrus Nilotica) is now unknown
in Egypt; no trace of it can be found. The unaccountable disappearance of this
plant from Egypt was foretold by Isaiah (19:6, 7) as a part of the divine judgment
on that land. The most extensive papyrus growths now known are in the marshes
at the northern end of the lake of Merom.
Paphos -
the capital of the island of Cyprus, and therefore the residence of the Roman
governor. It was visited by Paul and Barnabas on their first missionary tour (Acts
13:6). It is new Paphos which is here meant. It lay on the west coast of the island,
about 8 miles north of old Paphos. Its modern name is Baffa.
Parable
- (Gr. parabole), a placing beside; a comparison; equivalent to the Heb. mashal,
a similitude. In the Old Testament this is used to denote (1) a proverb (1 Sam.
10:12; 24:13; 2 Chr. 7:20), (2) a prophetic utterance (Num. 23:7; Ezek. 20:49),
(3) an enigmatic saying (Ps. 78:2; Prov. 1:6). In the New Testament, (1) a proverb
(Mark 7:17; Luke 4:23), (2) a typical emblem (Heb. 9:9; 11:19), (3) a similitude
or allegory (Matt. 15:15; 24:32; Mark 3:23; Luke 5:36; 14:7); (4) ordinarily,
in a more restricted sense, a comparison of earthly with heavenly things, "an
earthly story with a heavenly meaning," as in the parables of our Lord.
Instruction
by parables has been in use from the earliest times. A large portion of our Lord's
public teaching consisted of parables. He himself explains his reasons for this
in his answer to the inquiry of the disciples, "Why speakest thou to them in parables?"
(Matt. 13:13-15; Mark 4:11, 12; Luke 8:9, 10). He followed in so doing the rule
of the divine procedures, as recorded in Matt. 13:13.
The parables uttered
by our Lord are all recorded in the synoptical (i.e., the first three) Gospels.
The fourth Gospel contains no parable properly so called, although the illustration
of the good shepherd (John 10:1-16) has all the essential features of a parable.
(See List of Parables in Appendix.)
Paradise - a
Persian word (pardes), properly meaning a "pleasure-ground" or "park" or "king's
garden." (See EDEN.) It came
in course of time to be used as a name for the world of happiness and rest hereafter
(Luke 23:43; 2 Cor. 12:4; Rev. 2:7). For "garden" in Gen. 2:8 the LXX. has "paradise."
Parah - the heifer, a town in Benjamin (Josh. 18:23),
supposed to be identical with the ruins called Far'ah, about 6 miles north-east
of Jerusalem, in the Wady Far'ah, which is a branch of the Wady Kelt.
Paran
- abounding in foliage, or abounding in caverns, (Gen. 21:21), a desert tract
forming the north-eastern division of the peninsula of Sinai, lying between the
'Arabah on the east and the wilderness of Shur on the west. It is intersected
in a north-western direction by the Wady el-'Arish. It bears the modern name of
Badiet et-Tih, i.e., "the desert of the wanderings." This district, through which
the children of Israel wandered, lay three days' march from Sinai (Num. 10:12,
33). From Kadesh, in this wilderness, spies (q.v.) were sent to spy the land (13:3,
26). Here, long afterwards, David found refuge from Saul (1 Sam. 25:1, 4).
Paran,
Mount - probably the hilly region or upland wilderness on the north of the
desert of Paran forming the southern boundary of the Promised Land (Deut. 33:2;
Hab. 3:3).
Parbar - (1 Chr. 26:18), a place apparently
connected with the temple, probably a "suburb" (q.v.), as the word is rendered
in 2 Kings 23:11; a space between the temple wall and the wall of the court; an
open portico into which the chambers of the official persons opened (1 Chr. 26:18).
Parched ground - (Isa. 35:7), Heb. sharab, a "mirage",
a phenomenon caused by the refraction of the rays of the sun on the glowing sands
of the desert, causing them suddenly to assume the appearance of a beautiful lake.
It is called by the modern Arabs by the same Hebrew name serab.
Parchment
- a skin prepared for writing on; so called from Pergamos (q.v.), where this
was first done (2 Tim. 4:13).
Pardon - the forgiveness
of sins granted freely (Isa. 43:25), readily (Neh. 9:17; Ps. 86:5), abundantly
(Isa. 55:7; Rom. 5:20). Pardon is an act of a sovereign, in pure sovereignty,
granting simply a remission of the penalty due to sin, but securing neither honour
nor reward to the pardoned. Justification (q.v.), on the other hand, is the act
of a judge, and not of a sovereign, and includes pardon and, at the same time,
a title to all the rewards and blessings promised in the covenant of life.
Parlour
- (from the Fr. parler, "to speak") denotes an "audience chamber," but that
is not the import of the Hebrew word so rendered. It corresponds to what the Turks
call a kiosk, as in Judg. 3:20 (the "summer parlour"), or as in the margin of
the Revised Version ("the upper chamber of cooling"), a small room built on the
roof of the house, with open windows to catch the breeze, and having a door communicating
with the outside by which persons seeking an audience may be admitted. While Eglon
was resting in such a parlour, Ehud, under pretence of having a message from God
to him, was admitted into his presence, and murderously plunged his dagger into
his body (21, 22).
The "inner parlours" in 1 Chr. 28:11 were the small rooms
or chambers which Solomon built all round two sides and one end of the temple
(1 Kings 6:5), "side chambers;" or they may have been, as some think, the porch
and the holy place.
In 1 Sam. 9:22 the Revised Version reads "guest chamber,"
a chamber at the high place specially used for sacrificial feasts.
Parmashta
- strong-fisted, a son of Haman, slain in Shushan (Esther 9:9).
Parmenas
- constant, one of the seven "deacons" (Acts 6:5).
Parshandatha
- an interpreter of the law, the eldest of Haman's sons, slain in Shushan
(Esther 9:7).
Parthians - were present in Jerusalem
at Pentecost (Acts 2:9). Parthia lay on the east of Media and south of Hyrcania,
which separated it from the Caspian Sea. It corresponded with the western half
of the modern Khorasan, and now forms a part of Persia.
Partridge
- (Heb. kore, i.e., "caller"). This bird, unlike our own partridge, is distinguished
by "its ringing call-note, which in early morning echoes from cliff to cliff amidst
the barrenness of the wilderness of Judea and the glens of the forest of Carmel"
hence its Hebrew name. This name occurs only twice in Scripture.
In 1 Sam.
26:20 "David alludes to the mode of chase practised now, as of old, when the partridge,
continuously chased, was at length, when fatigued, knocked down by sticks thrown
along the ground." It endeavours to save itself "by running, in preference to
flight, unless when suddenly started. It is not an inhabitant of the plain or
the corn-field, but of rocky hill-sides" (Tristram's Nat. Hist.).
In Jer. 17:11
the prophet is illustrating the fact that riches unlawfully acquired are precarious
and short-lived. The exact nature of the illustration cannot be precisely determined.
Some interpret the words as meaning that the covetous man will be as surely disappointed
as the partridge which gathers in eggs, not of her own laying, and is unable to
hatch them; others (Tristram), with more probability, as denoting that the man
who enriches himself by unjust means "will as surely be disappointed as the partridge
which commences to sit, but is speedily robbed of her hopes of a brood" by her
eggs being stolen away from her.
The commonest partridge in Palestine is the
Caccabis saxatilis, the Greek partridge. The partridge of the wilderness (Ammo-perdix
heyi) is a smaller species. Both are essentially mountain and rock birds, thus
differing from the English partridge, which loves cultivated fields.
Paruah
- flourishing, the father of Jehoshaphat, appointed to provide monthly supplies
for Solomon from the tribe of Issachar (1 Kings 4:17).
Parvaim
- the name of a country from which Solomon obtained gold for the temple (2
Chr. 3:6). Some have identified it with Ophir, but it is uncertain whether it
is even the name of a place. It may simply, as some think, denote "Oriental regions."
Pasach - clearing, one of the sons of Japhlet,
of the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. 7:33).
Pas-dammim - the
border of blood = Ephes-dammim (q.v.), between Shochoh and Azekah (1 Sam. 17:1;
1 Chr. 11:13).
Pashur - release. (1.) The son of
Immer (probably the same as Amariah, Neh. 10:3; 12:2), the head of one of the
priestly courses, was "chief governor [Heb. paqid nagid, meaning "deputy governor"]
of the temple" (Jer. 20:1, 2). At this time the nagid, or "governor," of
the temple was Seraiah the high priest (1 Chr. 6:14), and Pashur was his paqid,
or "deputy." Enraged at the plainness with which Jeremiah uttered his solemn warnings
of coming judgements, because of the abounding iniquity of the times, Pashur ordered
the temple police to seize him, and after inflicting on him corporal punishment
(forty stripes save one, Deut. 25:3; comp. 2 Cor. 11:24), to put him in the stocks
in the high gate of Benjamin, where he remained all night. On being set free in
the morning, Jeremiah went to Pashur (Jer. 20:3, 5), and announced to him that
God had changed his name to Magor-missabib, i.e., "terror on every side." The
punishment that fell upon him was probably remorse, when he saw the ruin he had
brought upon his country by advising a close alliance with Egypt in opposition
to the counsels of Jeremiah (20:4-6). He was carried captive to Babylon, and died
there.
(2.) A priest sent by king Zedekiah to Jeremiah to inquire of the Lord
(1 Chr. 24:9; Jer. 21:1; 38:1-6). He advised that the prophet should be put to
death.
(3.) The father of Gedaliah. He was probably the same as (1).
Passage
- denotes in Josh. 22:11, as is generally understood, the place where the
children of Israel passed over Jordan. The words "the passage of" are, however,
more correctly rendered "by the side of," or "at the other side of," thus designating
the position of the great altar erected by the eastern tribes on their return
home. This word also designates the fords of the Jordan to the south of the Sea
of Galilee (Judg. 12:5, 6), and a pass or rocky defile (1 Sam. 13:23; 14:4). "Passages"
in Jer. 22:20 is in the Revised Version more correctly "Abarim" (q.v.), a proper
name.
Passion - Only once found, in Acts 1:3, meaning
suffering, referring to the sufferings of our Lord.
Passover
- the name given to the chief of the three great historical annual festivals
of the Jews. It was kept in remembrance of the Lord's passing over the houses
of the Israelites (Ex. 12:13) when the first born of all the Egyptians were destroyed.
It is called also the "feast of unleavened bread" (Ex. 23:15; Mark 14:1; Acts
12:3), because during its celebration no leavened bread was to be eaten or even
kept in the household (Ex. 12:15). The word afterwards came to denote the lamb
that was slain at the feast (Mark 14:12-14; 1 Cor. 5:7).
A detailed account
of the institution of this feast is given in Ex. 12 and 13. It was afterwards
incorporated in the ceremonial law (Lev. 23:4-8) as one of the great festivals
of the nation. In after times many changes seem to have taken place as to the
mode of its celebration as compared with its first celebration (comp. Deut. 16:2,
5, 6; 2 Chr. 30:16; Lev. 23:10-14; Num. 9:10, 11; 28:16-24). Again, the use of
wine (Luke 22:17, 20), of sauce with the bitter herbs (John 13:26), and the service
of praise were introduced.
There is recorded only one celebration of this feast
between the Exodus and the entrance into Canaan, namely, that mentioned in Num.
9:5. (See JOSIAH.) It
was primarily a commemorative ordinance, reminding the children of Israel of their
deliverance out of Egypt; but it was, no doubt, also a type of the great deliverance
wrought by the Messiah for all his people from the doom of death on account of
sin, and from the bondage of sin itself, a worse than Egyptian bondage (1 Cor.
5:7; John 1:29; 19:32-36; 1 Pet. 1:19; Gal. 4:4, 5). The appearance of Jerusalem
on the occasion of the Passover in the time of our Lord is thus fittingly described:
"The city itself and the neighbourhood became more and more crowded as the feast
approached, the narrow streets and dark arched bazaars showing the same throng
of men of all nations as when Jesus had first visited Jerusalem as a boy. Even
the temple offered a strange sight at this season, for in parts of the outer courts
a wide space was covered with pens for sheep, goats, and cattle to be used for
offerings. Sellers shouted the merits of their beasts, sheep bleated, oxen lowed.
Sellers of doves also had a place set apart for them. Potters offered a choice
from huge stacks of clay dishes and ovens for roasting and eating the Passover
lamb. Booths for wine, oil, salt, and all else needed for sacrifices invited customers.
Persons going to and from the city shortened their journey by crossing the temple
grounds, often carrying burdens...Stalls to change foreign money into the shekel
of the temple, which alone could be paid to the priests, were numerous, the whole
confusion making the sanctuary like a noisy market" (Geikie's Life of Christ).
Patara - a city on the south-west coast of Lycia
at which Paul landed on his return from his third missionary journey (Acts 21:1,
2). Here he found a larger vessel, which was about to sail across the open sea
to the coast of Phoenicia. In this vessel he set forth, and reached the city of
Tyre in perhaps two or three days.
Pathros - the
name generally given to Upper Egypt (the Thebaid of the Greeks), as distinguished
from Matsor, or Lower Egypt (Isa. 11:11; Jer. 44:1, 15; Ezek. 30:14), the two
forming Mizraim. After the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, colonies
of Jews settled "in the country of Pathros" and other parts of Egypt.
Patmos
- a small rocky and barren island, one of the group called the "Sporades,"
in the AEgean Sea. It is mentioned in Scripture only in Rev. 1:9. It was on this
island, to which John was banished by the emperor Domitian (A.D. 95), that he
received from God the wondrous revelation recorded in his book. This has naturally
invested it with the deepest interest for all time. It is now called Patmo. (See
JOHN.)
Patriarch
- a name employed in the New Testament with reference to Abraham (Heb. 7:4),
the sons of Jacob (Acts 7:8, 9), and to David (2:29). This name is generally applied
to the progenitors of families or "heads of the fathers" (Josh. 14:1) mentioned
in Scripture, and they are spoken of as antediluvian (from Adam to Noah) and post-diluvian
(from Noah to Jacob) patriachs. But the expression "the patriarch," by way of
eminence, is applied to the twelve sons of Jacob, or to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
"Patriachal longevity presents itself as one of the most striking of the facts
concerning mankind which the early history of the Book of Genesis places before
us...There is a large amount of consentient tradition to the effect that the life
of man was originally far more prolonged than it is at present, extending to at
least several hundred years. The Babylonians, Egyptians, and Chinese exaggerated
these hundreds into thousands. The Greeks and Romans, with more moderation, limited
human life within a thousand or eight hundred years. The Hindus still farther
shortened the term. Their books taught that in the first age of the world man
was free from diseases, and lived ordinarily four hundred years; in the second
age the term of life was reduced from four hundred to three hundred; in the third
it became two hundred; in the fourth and last it was brought down to one hundred"
(Rawlinson's Historical Illustrations).
Patrobas -
a Christian at Rome to whom Paul sent salutations (Rom. 16:14).
Pau
- (Gen. 36:39) or Pai (1 Chr. 1:50), bleating, an Edomitish city ruled over
by Hadar.
Paul - =Saul (q.v.) was born about the
same time as our Lord. His circumcision-name was Saul, and probably the name Paul
was also given to him in infancy "for use in the Gentile world," as "Saul" would
be his Hebrew home-name. He was a native of Tarsus, the capital of Cilicia, a
Roman province in the south-east of Asia Minor. That city stood on the banks of
the river Cydnus, which was navigable thus far; hence it became a centre of extensive
commercial traffic with many countries along the shores of the Mediterranean,
as well as with the countries of central Asia Minor. It thus became a city distinguished
for the wealth of its inhabitants.
Tarsus was also the seat of a famous university,
higher in reputation even than the universities of Athens and Alexandria, the
only others that then existed. Here Saul was born, and here he spent his youth,
doubtless enjoying the best education his native city could afford. His father
was of the straitest sect of the Jews, a Pharisee, of the tribe of Benjamin, of
pure and unmixed Jewish blood (Acts 23:6; Phil. 3:5). We learn nothing regarding
his mother; but there is reason to conclude that she was a pious woman, and that,
like-minded with her husband, she exercised all a mother influence in moulding
the character of her son, so that he could afterwards speak of himself as being,
from his youth up, "touching the righteousness which is in the law, blameless"
(Phil. 3:6).
We read of his sister and his sister's son (Acts 23:16), and of
other relatives (Rom. 16:7, 11, 12). Though a Jew, his father was a Roman citizen.
How he obtained this privilege we are not informed. "It might be bought, or won
by distinguished service to the state, or acquired in several other ways; at all
events, his son was freeborn. It was a valuable privilege, and one that was to
prove of great use to Paul, although not in the way in which his father might
have been expected to desire him to make use of it." Perhaps the most natural
career for the youth to follow was that of a merchant. "But it was decided that...he
should go to college and become a rabbi, that is, a minister, a teacher, and a
lawyer all in one."
According to Jewish custom, however, he learned a trade
before entering on the more direct preparation for the sacred profession. The
trade he acquired was the making of tents from goats' hair cloth, a trade which
was one of the commonest in Tarsus.
His preliminary education having been completed,
Saul was sent, when about thirteen years of age probably, to the great Jewish
school of sacred learning at Jerusalem as a student of the law. Here he became
a pupil of the celebrated rabbi Gamaliel, and here he spent many years in an elaborate
study of the Scriptures and of the many questions concerning them with which the
rabbis exercised themselves. During these years of diligent study he lived "in
all good conscience," unstained by the vices of that great city.
After the
period of his student-life expired, he probably left Jerusalem for Tarsus, where
he may have been engaged in connection with some synagogue for some years. But
we find him back again at Jerusalem very soon after the death of our Lord. Here
he now learned the particulars regarding the crucifixion, and the rise of the
new sect of the "Nazarenes."
For some two years after Pentecost, Christianity
was quietly spreading its influence in Jerusalem. At length Stephen, one of the
seven deacons, gave forth more public and aggressive testimony that Jesus was
the Messiah, and this led to much excitement among the Jews and much disputation
in their synagogues. Persecution arose against Stephen and the followers of Christ
generally, in which Saul of Tarsus took a prominent part. He was at this time
probably a member of the great Sanhedrin, and became the active leader in the
furious persecution by which the rulers then sought to exterminate Christianity.
But the object of this persecution also failed. "They that were scattered abroad
went everywhere preaching the word." The anger of the persecutor was thereby kindled
into a fiercer flame. Hearing that fugitives had taken refuge in Damascus, he
obtained from the chief priest letters authorizing him to proceed thither on his
persecuting career. This was a long journey of about 130 miles, which would occupy
perhaps six days, during which, with his few attendants, he steadily went onward,
"breathing out threatenings and slaughter." But the crisis of his life was at
hand. He had reached the last stage of his journey, and was within sight of Damascus.
As he and his companions rode on, suddenly at mid-day a brilliant light shone
round them, and Saul was laid prostrate in terror on the ground, a voice sounding
in his ears, "Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?" The risen Saviour was there,
clothed in the vesture of his glorified humanity. In answer to the anxious inquiry
of the stricken persecutor, "Who art thou, Lord?" he said, "I am Jesus whom thou
persecutest" (Acts 9:5; 22:8; 26:15).
This was the moment of his conversion,
the most solemn in all his life. Blinded by the dazzling light (Acts 9:8), his
companions led him into the city, where, absorbed in deep thought for three days,
he neither ate nor drank (9:11). Ananias, a disciple living in Damascus, was informed
by a vision of the change that had happened to Saul, and was sent to him to open
his eyes and admit him by baptism into the Christian church (9:11-16). The whole
purpose of his life was now permanently changed.
Immediately after his conversion
he retired into the solitudes of Arabia (Gal. 1:17), perhaps of "Sinai in Arabia,"
for the purpose, probably, of devout study and meditation on the marvellous revelation
that had been made to him. "A veil of thick darkness hangs over this visit to
Arabia. Of the scenes among which he moved, of the thoughts and occupations which
engaged him while there, of all the circumstances of a crisis which must have
shaped the whole tenor of his after-life, absolutely nothing is known. 'Immediately,'
says St. Paul, 'I went away into Arabia.' The historian passes over the incident
[comp. Acts 9:23 and 1 Kings 11:38, 39]. It is a mysterious pause, a moment of
suspense, in the apostle's history, a breathless calm, which ushers in the tumultuous
storm of his active missionary life." Coming back, after three years, to Damascus,
he began to preach the gospel "boldly in the name of Jesus" (Acts 9:27), but was
soon obliged to flee (9:25; 2 Cor. 11:33) from the Jews and betake himself to
Jerusalem. Here he tarried for three weeks, but was again forced to flee (Acts
9:28, 29) from persecution. He now returned to his native Tarsus (Gal. 1:21),
where, for probably about three years, we lose sight of him. The time had not
yet come for his entering on his great life-work of preaching the gospel to the
Gentiles.
At length the city of Antioch, the capital of Syria, became the scene
of great Christian activity. There the gospel gained a firm footing, and the cause
of Christ prospered. Barnabas (q.v.), who had been sent from Jerusalem to superintend
the work at Antioch, found it too much for him, and remembering Saul, he set out
to Tarsus to seek for him. He readily responded to the call thus addressed to
him, and came down to Antioch, which for "a whole year" became the scene of his
labours, which were crowned with great success. The disciples now, for the first
time, were called "Christians" (Acts 11:26).
The church at Antioch now proposed
to send out missionaries to the Gentiles, and Saul and Barnabas, with John Mark
as their attendant, were chosen for this work. This was a great epoch in the history
of the church. Now the disciples began to give effect to the Master's command:
"Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature."
The three
missionaries went forth on the first missionary tour. They sailed from Seleucia,
the seaport of Antioch, across to Cyprus, some 80 miles to the south-west. Here
at Paphos, Sergius Paulus, the Roman proconsul, was converted, and now Saul took
the lead, and was ever afterwards called Paul. The missionaries now crossed to
the mainland, and then proceeded 6 or 7 miles up the river Cestrus to Perga (Acts
13:13), where John Mark deserted the work and returned to Jerusalem. The two then
proceeded about 100 miles inland, passing through Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia.
The towns mentioned in this tour are the Pisidian Antioch, where Paul delivered
his first address of which we have any record (13:16-51; comp. 10:30-43), Iconium,
Lystra, and Derbe. They returned by the same route to see and encourage the converts
they had made, and ordain elders in every city to watch over the churches which
had been gathered. From Perga they sailed direct for Antioch, from which they
had set out.
After remaining "a long time", probably till A.D. 50 or 51, in
Antioch, a great controversy broke out in the church there regarding the relation
of the Gentiles to the Mosaic law. For the purpose of obtaining a settlement of
this question, Paul and Barnabas were sent as deputies to consult the church at
Jerusalem. The council or synod which was there held (Acts 15) decided against
the Judaizing party; and the deputies, accompanied by Judas and Silas, returned
to Antioch, bringing with them the decree of the council.
After a short rest
at Antioch, Paul said to Barnabas: "Let us go again and visit our brethren in
every city where we have preached the word of the Lord, and see how they do."
Mark proposed again to accompany them; but Paul refused to allow him to go. Barnabas
was resolved to take Mark, and thus he and Paul had a sharp contention. They separated,
and never again met. Paul, however, afterwards speaks with honour of Barnabas,
and sends for Mark to come to him at Rome (Col. 4:10; 2 Tim. 4:11).
Paul took
with him Silas, instead of Barnabas, and began his second missionary journey about
A.D. 51. This time he went by land, revisiting the churches he had already founded
in Asia. But he longed to enter into "regions beyond," and still went forward
through Phrygia and Galatia (16:6). Contrary to his intention, he was constrained
to linger in Galatia (q.v.), on account of some bodily affliction (Gal. 4:13,
14). Bithynia, a populous province on the shore of the Black Sea, lay now before
him, and he wished to enter it; but the way was shut, the Spirit in some manner
guiding him in another direction, till he came down to the shores of the AEgean
and arrived at Troas, on the north-western coast of Asia Minor (Acts 16:8). Of
this long journey from Antioch to Troas we have no account except some references
to it in his Epistle to the Galatians (4:13).
As he waited at Troas for indications
of the will of God as to his future movements, he saw, in the vision of the night,
a man from the opposite shores of Macedonia standing before him, and heard him
cry, "Come over, and help us" (Acts 16:9). Paul recognized in this vision a message
from the Lord, and the very next day set sail across the Hellespont, which separated
him from Europe, and carried the tidings of the gospel into the Western world.
In Macedonia, churches were planted in Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea. Leaving
this province, Paul passed into Achaia, "the paradise of genius and renown." He
reached Athens, but quitted it after, probably, a brief sojourn (17:17-31). The
Athenians had received him with cold disdain, and he never visited that city again.
He passed over to Corinth, the seat of the Roman government of Achaia, and remained
there a year and a half, labouring with much success. While at Corinth, he wrote
his two epistles to the church of Thessalonica, his earliest apostolic letters,
and then sailed for Syria, that he might be in time to keep the feast of Pentecost
at Jerusalem. He was accompanied by Aquila and Priscilla, whom he left at Ephesus,
at which he touched, after a voyage of thirteen or fifteen days. He landed at
Caesarea, and went up to Jerusalem, and having "saluted the church" there, and
kept the feast, he left for Antioch, where he abode "some time" (Acts 18:20-23).
He then began his third missionary tour. He journeyed by land in the "upper
coasts" (the more eastern parts) of Asia Minor, and at length made his way to
Ephesus, where he tarried for no less than three years, engaged in ceaseless Christian
labour. "This city was at the time the Liverpool of the Mediterranean. It possessed
a splendid harbour, in which was concentrated the traffic of the sea which was
then the highway of the nations; and as Liverpool has behind her the great towns
of Lancashire, so had Ephesus behind and around her such cities as those mentioned
along with her in the epistles to the churches in the book of Revelation, Smyrna,
Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. It was a city of vast
wealth, and it was given over to every kind of pleasure, the fame of its theatres
and race-course being world-wide" (Stalker's Life of St. Paul). Here a "great
door and effectual" was opened to the apostle. His fellow-labourers aided him
in his work, carrying the gospel to Colosse and Laodicea and other places which
they could reach.
Very shortly before his departure from Ephesus, the apostle
wrote his First Epistle to the Corinthians (q.v.). The silversmiths, whose traffic
in the little images which they made was in danger (see DEMETRIUS ¯T0001013),
organized a riot against Paul, and he left the city, and proceeded to Troas (2
Cor. 2:12), whence after some time he went to meet Titus in Macedonia. Here, in
consequence of the report Titus brought from Corinth, he wrote his second epistle
to that church. Having spent probably most of the summer and autumn in Macedonia,
visiting the churches there, specially the churches of Philippi, Thessalonica,
and Berea, probably penetrating into the interior, to the shores of the Adriatic
(Rom. 15:19), he then came into Greece, where he abode three month, spending probably
the greater part of this time in Corinth (Acts 20:2). During his stay in this
city he wrote his Epistle to the Galatians, and also the great Epistle to the
Romans. At the end of the three months he left Achaia for Macedonia, thence crossed
into Asia Minor, and touching at Miletus, there addressed the Ephesian presbyters,
whom he had sent for to meet him (Acts 20:17), and then sailed for Tyre, finally
reaching Jerusalem, probably in the spring of A.D. 58.
While at Jerusalem,
at the feast of Pentecost, he was almost murdered by a Jewish mob in the temple.
(See TEMPLE, HEROD'S ¯T0003611.) Rescued from their violence by the Roman commandant,
he was conveyed as a prisoner to Caesarea, where, from various causes, he was
detained a prisoner for two years in Herod's praetorium (Acts 23:35). "Paul was
not kept in close confinement; he had at least the range of the barracks in which
he was detained. There we can imagine him pacing the ramparts on the edge of the
Mediterranean, and gazing wistfully across the blue waters in the direction of
Macedonia, Achaia, and Ephesus, where his spiritual children were pining for him,
or perhaps encountering dangers in which they sorely needed his presence. It was
a mysterious providence which thus arrested his energies and condemned the ardent
worker to inactivity; yet we can now see the reason for it. Paul was needing rest.
After twenty years of incessant evangelization, he required leisure to garner
the harvest of experience...During these two years he wrote nothing; it was a
time of internal mental activity and silent progress" (Stalker's Life of St. Paul).
At the end of these two years Felix (q.v.) was succeeded in the governorship
of Palestine by Porcius Festus, before whom the apostle was again heard. But judging
it right at this crisis to claim the privilege of a Roman citizen, he appealed
to the emperor (Acts 25:11). Such an appeal could not be disregarded, and Paul
was at once sent on to Rome under the charge of one Julius, a centurion of the
"Augustan cohort." After a long and perilous voyage, he at length reached the
imperial city in the early spring, probably, of A.D. 61. Here he was permitted
to occupy his own hired house, under constant military custody. This privilege
was accorded to him, no doubt, because he was a Roman citizen, and as such could
not be put into prison without a trial. The soldiers who kept guard over Paul
were of course changed at frequent intervals, and thus he had the opportunity
of preaching the gospel to many of them during these "two whole years," and with
the blessed result of spreading among the imperial guards, and even in Caesar's
household, an interest in the truth (Phil. 1:13). His rooms were resorted to by
many anxious inquirers, both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 28:23, 30, 31), and thus
his imprisonment "turned rather to the furtherance of the gospel," and his "hired
house" became the centre of a gracious influence which spread over the whole city.
According to a Jewish tradition, it was situated on the borders of the modern
Ghetto, which has been the Jewish quarters in Rome from the time of Pompey to
the present day. During this period the apostle wrote his epistles to the Colossians,
Ephesians, Philippians, and to Philemon, and probably also to the Hebrews.
This
first imprisonment came at length to a close, Paul having been acquitted, probably
because no witnesses appeared against him. Once more he set out on his missionary
labours, probably visiting western and eastern Europe and Asia Minor. During this
period of freedom he wrote his First Epistle to Timothy and his Epistle to Titus.
The year of his release was signalized by the burning of Rome, which Nero saw
fit to attribute to the Christians. A fierce persecution now broke out against
the Christians. Paul was siezed, and once more conveyed to Rome a prisoner. During
this imprisonment he probably wrote the Second Epistle to Timothy, the last he
ever wrote. "There can be little doubt that he appered again at Nero's bar, and
this time the charge did not break down. In all history there is not a more startling
illustration of the irony of human life than this scene of Paul at the bar of
Nero. On the judgment-seat, clad in the imperial purple, sat a man who, in a bad
world, had attained the eminence of being the very worst and meanest being in
it, a man stained with every crime, a man whose whole being was so steeped in
every nameable and unnameable vice, that body and soul of him were, as some one
said at the time, nothing but a compound of mud and blood; and in the prisoner's
dock stood the best man the world possessed, his hair whitened with labours for
the good of men and the glory of God. The trial ended: Paul was condemned, and
delivered over to the executioner. He was led out of the city, with a crowd of
the lowest rabble at his heels. The fatal spot was reached; he knelt beside the
block; the headsman's axe gleamed in the sun and fell; and the head of the apostle
of the world rolled down in the dust" (probably A.D. 66), four years before the
fall of Jerusalem.
Pavement - It was the custom
of the Roman governors to erect their tribunals in open places, as the market-place,
the circus, or even the highway. Pilate caused his seat of judgment to be set
down in a place called "the Pavement" (John 19:13) i.e., a place paved with a
mosaic of coloured stones. It was probably a place thus prepared in front of the
"judgment hall." (See GABBATHA.)
Pavilion
- a tent or tabernacle (2 Sam. 22:12; 1 Kings 20:12-16), or enclosure (Ps.
18:11; 27:5). In Jer. 43:10 it probably denotes the canopy suspended over the
judgement-seat of the king.
Peace offerings - (Heb.
shelamim), detailed regulations regarding given in Lev. 3; 7:11-21, 29-34. They
were of three kinds, (1) eucharistic or thanksgiving offerings, expressive of
gratitude for blessings received; (2) in fulfilment of a vow, but expressive also
of thanks for benefits recieved; and (3) free-will offerings, something spontaneously
devoted to God.
Peacock - (Heb. tuk, apparently
borrowed from the Tamil tokei). This bird is indigenous to India. It was brought
to Solomon by his ships from Tarshish (1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21), which in this
case was probably a district on the Malabar coast of India, or in Ceylon. The
word so rendered in Job 39:13 literally means wild, tumultuous crying, and properly
denotes the female ostrich (q.v.).
Pearl - (Heb.
gabish, Job 28:18; Gr. margarites, Matt. 7:6; 13:46; Rev. 21:21). The pearl oyster
is found in the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. Its shell is the "mother of pearl,"
which is of great value for ornamental purposes (1 Tim. 2:9; Rev. 17:4). Each
shell contains eight or ten pearls of various sizes.
Peculiar
- as used in the phrase "peculiar people" in 1 Pet. 2:9, is derived from the
Lat. peculium, and denotes, as rendered in the Revised Version ("a people for
God's own possession"), a special possession or property. The church is the "property"
of God, his "purchased possession" (Eph. 1:14; R.V., "God's own possession").
Pedahel - redeemed of God, the son of Ammihud,
a prince of Naphtali (Num. 34:28).
Pedahzur - rock
of redemption, the father of Gamaliel and prince of Manasseh at the time of the
Exodus (Num. 1:10; 2:20).
Pedaiah - redemption
of the Lord. (1.) The father of Zebudah, who was the wife of Josiah and mother
of king Jehoiakim (2 Kings 23:36).
(2.) The father of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3:17-19).
(3.). The father of Joel, ruler of the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr. 27:20).
(4.) Neh. 3:25.
(5.) A Levite (8:4).
(6.) A Benjamite (11:7).
(7.)
A Levite (13:13).
Pekah - open-eyed, the son of
Remaliah a captain in the army of Pekahiah, king of Israel, whom he slew, with
the aid of a band of Gileadites, and succeeded (B.C. 758) on the throne (2 Kings
15:25). Seventeen years after this he entered into an alliance with Rezin, king
of Syria, and took part with him in besieging Jerusalem (2 Kings 15:37; 16:5).
But Tiglath-pilser, who was in alliance with Ahaz, king of Judah, came up against
Pekah, and carried away captive many of the inhabitants of his kingdom (2 Kings
15:29). This was the beginning of the "Captivity." Soon after this Pekah was put
to death by Hoshea, the son of Elah, who usurped the throne (2 Kings 15:30; 16:1-9.
Comp. Isa. 7:16; 8:4; 9:12). He is supposed by some to have been the "shephard"
mentioned in Zech. 11:16.
Pekahiah - the Lord opened
his eyes, the son and successor of Menahem on the throne of Israel. He was murdered
in the royal palace of Samaria by Pekah, one of the captains of his army (2 Kings
15:23-26), after a reign of two years (B.C. 761-759). He "did that which was evil
in the sight of the Lord."
Pekod - probably a place
in Babylonia (Jer. 50:21; Ezek. 23:23). It is the opinion, however, of some that
this word signifies "visitation," "punishment," and allegorically "designates
Babylon as the city which was to be destroyed."
Pelaiah
- distinguished of the Lord. (1.) One of David's posterity (1 Chr. 3:24).
(2.) A Levite who expounded the law (Neh. 8:7).
Pelatiah
- deliverance of the Lord. (1.) A son of Hananiah and grandson of Zerubbabel
(1 Chr. 3:21).
(2.) A captain of "the sons of Simeon" (4:42).
(3.) Neh.
10:22.
(4.) One of the twenty-five princes of the people against whom Ezekiel
prophesied on account of their wicked counsel (Ezek. 11:1-13).
Peleg
- division, one of the sons of Eber; so called because "in his days was the
earth divided" (Gen. 10:25). Possibly he may have lived at the time of the dispersion
from Babel. But more probably the reference is to the dispersion of the two races
which sprang from Eber, the one spreading towards Mesopotamia and Syria, and the
other southward into Arabia.
Pelet - deliverance.
(1.) A descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 2:47).
(2.) A Benjamite who joined David
at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:3).
Peleth - swiftness. (1.)
A Reubenite whose son was one of the conspirators against Moses and Aaron (Num.
16:1).
(2.) One of the sons of Jonathan (1 Chr. 2:33).
Pelethites
- mentioned always along with the Cherethites, and only in the time of David.
The word probably means "runners" or "couriers," and may denote that while forming
part of David's bodyguard, they were also sometimes employed as couriers (2 Sam.
8:18; 20:7, 23;1 Kings 1:38, 44; 1 Chr. 18:17). Some, however, think that these
are the names simply of two Philistine tribes from which David selected his body-guard.
They are mentioned along with the Gittites (2 Sam. 15:18), another body of foreign
troops whom David gathered round him.
Pelicans - are
frequently met with at the waters of Merom and the Sea of Galilee. The pelican
is ranked among unclean birds (Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:17). It is of an enormous
size, being about 6 feet long, with wings stretching out over 12 feet. The Hebrew
name (kaath, i.e., "vomiter") of this bird is incorrectly rendered "cormorant"
in the Authorized Version of Isa. 34:11 and Zeph. 2:14, but correctly in the Revised
Version. It receives its Hebrew name from its habit of storing in its pouch large
quantities of fish, which it disgorges when it feeds its young. Two species are
found on the Syrian coast, the Pelicanus onocrotalus, or white pelican, and the
Pelicanus crispus, or Dalmatian pelican.
Penny - (Gr.
denarion), a silver coin of the value of about 7 1/2d. or 8d. of our present money.
It is thus rendered in the New Testament, and is more frequently mentioned than
any other coin (Matt. 18:28; 20:2, 9, 13; Mark 6:37; 14:5, etc.). It was the daily
pay of a Roman soldier in the time of Christ. In the reign of Edward III. an English
penny was a labourer's day's wages. This was the "tribute money" with reference
to which our Lord said, "Whose image and superscription is this?" When they answered,
"Caesar's," he replied, "Render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar's;
and to God the things that are God's" (Matt. 22:19; Mark 12:15).
Pentateuch
- the five-fold volume, consisting of the first five books of the Old Testament.
This word does not occur in Scripture, nor is it certainly known when the roll
was thus divided into five portions Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.
Probably that was done by the LXX. translators. Some modern critics speak of a
Hexateuch, introducing the Book of Joshua as one of the group. But this book is
of an entirely different character from the other books, and has a different author.
It stands by itself as the first of a series of historical books beginning with
the entrance of the Israelites into Canaan. (See JOSHUA.)
The
books composing the Pentateuch are properly but one book, the "Law of Moses,"
the "Book of the Law of Moses," the "Book of Moses," or, as the Jews designate
it, the "Torah" or "Law." That in its present form it "proceeds from a single
author is proved by its plan and aim, according to which its whole contents refer
to the covenant concluded between Jehovah and his people, by the instrumentality
of Moses, in such a way that everything before his time is perceived to be preparatory
to this fact, and all the rest to be the development of it. Nevertheless, this
unity has not been stamped upon it as a matter of necessity by the latest redactor:
it has been there from the beginning, and is visible in the first plan and in
the whole execution of the work.", Keil, Einl. i.d. A. T.
A certain school
of critics have set themselves to reconstruct the books of the Old Testament.
By a process of "scientific study" they have discovered that the so-called historical
books of the Old Testament are not history at all, but a miscellaneous collection
of stories, the inventions of many different writers, patched together by a variety
of editors! As regards the Pentateuch, they are not ashamed to attribute fraud,
and even conspiracy, to its authors, who sought to find acceptance to their work
which was composed partly in the age of Josiah, and partly in that of Ezra and
Nehemiah, by giving it out to be the work of Moses! This is not the place to enter
into the details of this controversy. We may say frankly, however, that we have
no faith in this "higher criticism." It degrades the books of the Old Testament
below the level of fallible human writings, and the arguments on which its speculations
are built are altogether untenable.
The evidences in favour of the Mosaic authorship
of the Pentateuch are conclusive. We may thus state some of them briefly:
(1.)
These books profess to have been written by Moses in the name of God (Ex. 17:14;
24:3, 4, 7; 32:7-10, 30-34; 34:27; Lev. 26:46; 27:34; Deut. 31:9, 24, 25).
(2.)
This also is the uniform and persistent testimony of the Jews of all sects in
all ages and countries (comp. Josh. 8:31, 32; 1 Kings 2:3; Jer. 7:22; Ezra 6:18;
Neh. 8:1; Mal. 4:4; Matt. 22:24; Acts 15:21).
(3.) Our Lord plainly taught
the Mosaic authorship of these books (Matt. 5:17, 18; 19:8; 22:31, 32; 23:2; Mark
10:9; 12:26; Luke 16:31; 20:37; 24:26, 27, 44; John 3:14; 5:45, 46, 47; 6:32,
49; 7:19, 22). In the face of this fact, will any one venture to allege either
that Christ was ignorant of the composition of the Bible, or that, knowing the
true state of the case, he yet encouraged the people in the delusion they clung
to?
(4.) From the time of Joshua down to the time of Ezra there is, in the
intermediate historical books, a constant reference to the Pentateuch as the "Book
of the Law of Moses." This is a point of much importance, inasmuch as the critics
deny that there is any such reference; and hence they deny the historical character
of the Pentateuch. As regards the Passover, e.g., we find it frequently spoken
of or alluded to in the historical books following the Pentateuch, showing that
the "Law of Moses" was then certainly known. It was celebrated in the time of
Joshua (Josh. 5:10, cf. 4:19), Hezekiah (2 Chr. 30), Josiah (2 Kings 23; 2 Chr.
35), and Zerubbabel (Ezra 6:19-22), and is referred to in such passages as 2 Kings
23:22; 2 Chr. 35:18; 1 Kings 9:25 ("three times in a year"); 2 Chr. 8:13. Similarly
we might show frequent references to the Feast of Tabernacles and other Jewish
institutions, although we do not admit that any valid argument can be drawn from
the silence of Scripture in such a case. An examination of the following texts,
1 Kings 2:9; 2 Kings 14:6; 2 Chr. 23:18; 25:4; 34:14; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Dan. 9:11,
13, will also plainly show that the "Law of Moses" was known during all these
centuries.
Granting that in the time of Moses there existed certain oral traditions
or written records and documents which he was divinely led to make use of in his
history, and that his writing was revised by inspired successors, this will fully
account for certain peculiarities of expression which critics have called "anachronisms"
and "contradictions," but in no way militates against the doctrine that Moses
was the original author of the whole of the Pentateuch. It is not necessary for
us to affirm that the whole is an original composition; but we affirm that the
evidences clearly demonstrate that Moses was the author of those books which have
come down to us bearing his name. The Pentateuch is certainly the basis and necessary
preliminary of the whole of the Old Testament history and literature. (See DEUTERONOMY.)
Pentecost - i.e., "fiftieth", found only in the
New Testament (Acts 2:1; 20:16; 1 Cor. 16:8). The festival so named is first spoken
of in Ex. 23:16 as "the feast of harvest," and again in Ex. 34:22 as "the day
of the firstfruits" (Num. 28:26). From the sixteenth of the month of Nisan (the
second day of the Passover), seven complete weeks, i.e., forty-nine days, were
to be reckoned, and this feast was held on the fiftieth day. The manner in which
it was to be kept is described in Lev. 23:15-19; Num. 28:27-29. Besides the sacrifices
prescribed for the occasion, every one was to bring to the Lord his "tribute of
a free-will offering" (Deut. 16:9-11). The purpose of this feast was to commemorate
the completion of the grain harvest. Its distinguishing feature was the offering
of "two leavened loaves" made from the new corn of the completed harvest, which,
with two lambs, were waved before the Lord as a thank offering.
The day of
Pentecost is noted in the Christian Church as the day on which the Spirit descended
upon the apostles, and on which, under Peter's preaching, so many thousands were
converted in Jerusalem (Acts 2).
Penuel - face
of God, a place not far from Succoth, on the east of the Jordan and north of the
river Jabbok. It is also called "Peniel." Here Jacob wrestled (Gen. 32:24-32)
"with a man" ("the angel", Hos. 12:4. Jacob says of him, "I have seen God face
to face") "till the break of day."
A town was afterwards built there (Judg.
8:8; 1 Kings 12:25). The men of this place refused to succour Gideon and his little
army when they were in pursuit of the Midianites (Judg. 8:1-21). On his return,
Gideon slew the men of this city and razed its lofty watch-tower to the ground.
Peor - opening. (1.) A mountain peak (Num. 23:28)
to which Balak led Balaam as a last effort to induce him to pronounce a curse
upon Israel. When he looked on the tribes encamped in the acacia groves below
him, he could not refrain from giving utterance to a remarkable benediction (24:1-9).
Balak was more than ever enraged at Balaam, and bade him flee for his life. But
before he went he gave expression to that wonderful prediction regarding the future
of this mysterious people, whose "goodly tents" were spread out before him, and
the coming of a "Star" out of Jacob and a "Sceptre" out of Israel (24:14-17).
(2.) A Moabite divinity, called also "Baal-peor" (Num. 25:3, 5, 18; comp. Deut.
3:29).
Perazim, Mount - mount of breaches, only
in Isa. 28:21. It is the same as BAAL-PERAZIM (q.v.), where David gained a victory
over the Philistines (2 Sam. 5:20).
Peres - divided,
one of the mysterious words "written over against the candlestick upon the plaster
of the wall" of king Belshazzar's palace (Dan. 5:28). (See MENE.)
Perez
- =Pharez, (q.v.), breach, the son of Judah (Neh. 11:4). "The chief of all
the captains of the host for the first month" in the reign of David was taken
from his family (1 Chr. 27:3). Four hundred and sixty-eight of his "sons" came
back from captivity with Zerubbabel, who himself was one of them (1 Chr. 9:4;
Neh. 11:6).
Perez-uzzah - the breach of Uzzah, a place
where God "burst forth upon Uzzah, so that he died," when he rashly "took hold"
of the ark (2 Sam. 6:6-8). It was not far from Kirjath-jearim (q.v.).